The claim

General education teachers can accurately refer students for special education services.

The facts

General education classroom teachers play a key role in the identification process for students with disabilities. Researchers such as James Ysseldyke have found that classroom teachers are highly accurate in referring students who later are officially identified with a disability. This week’s post will focus on factors that play important roles in a student’s referral for special education services: school/district curriculum expectations, school demographics, classroom practices, teachers’ perspectives, and students’ characteristics.

State/district curriculum expectations

Teachers are now required to adhere to strict curriculum expectations paired with more stringent assessment requirements. These curriculum expectations can play a role in when and whether a student is referred for special education services in a number of ways:

• A greater focus on early intervention enables teachers to address students’ difficulties as early as possible in order to increase the chances for students’ success in later grades.
• General education classroom teachers play a key role in the delivery of curriculum in which students are to demonstrate learning.
• Teachers’ role in teaching state curriculum has been recently complicated by changes in educational policy that has impacted how general education classroom teachers view referral guidelines for struggling students. For example, new grade-level expectations require that students demonstrate academic skills at or above their benchmark level. Students also need to demonstrate adequate yearly progress in reading, writing, and math. These curricular challenges pose problems for struggling students and force many teachers to make referrals for special education services when students cannot meet these requirements.

School demographics

Schools’ demographic characteristics also can influence referral of students for special education. For example, many smaller rural districts face challenges such as a lack of resources for students and an inability to cover the costs of preparing students for state-mandated assessments. Schools with large student populations and those without programs that address struggling students’ needs or early intervention are more likely to nominate students for special education services.

Research has also found that in schools or communities with higher poverty rates, teachers are less tolerant of student misbehavior. This highlights the important role of the classroom teacher for classroom practices, instructional strategies, and treatment of students, and how demographics can influence teachers’ perspectives.

Teachers’ perspectives

As we’ve just seen, general education classroom teachers’ individual perspectives can create a variety of conditions that may encourage or deter referral of a student for special education services:

• Teachers who have a more demanding instructional style tend to set higher expectations and push students to meet them.
• Some teachers have a more student-directed view of curriculum and may be more patient with students who have difficulty with classroom practices and curriculum expectations.
• The growing diversity of school communities has forced teachers to face the reality of addressing the needs of students from diverse cultural, ethnic, and class backgrounds. For example, in a previous post, we presented findings that showed that African American boys were more likely to be identified with severe emotional disturbance and mental retardation in affluent, large white communities, but not in communities where at least 30% of the population represented African-American families. As a result, it may be easy for teachers to overlook the students who actually need assistance due to their focus on issues such as race and culture.
• Some teachers’ ideologies may negatively affect students’ level of motivation and desire to excel.

It is easy to see how teachers’ perspectives can be influenced by demographics and curricular expectations, and in turn, greatly influence their classroom practices.

Classroom practices

The ways in which teachers organize classroom practices are related to factors such as pressures to cover mandated curriculum or to prepare students for assessments, school demographics, and their individual perspectives. All of these factors are reflected in the skills and confidence a teacher brings to the classroom, as well as the different instructional practices that need to be managed in a diverse classroom.

Teachers are more likely to feel they have accomplished something positive when they can implement classroom practices that they regard as “good teaching.” This is accomplished when teachers feel they can teach students the content they need to know, while at the same time providing a learning experience in which students can grow and mature both intellectually and socially.

Classroom management strategies are often used by teachers to establish supports for the academic and behavioral success of all students. All students benefit from effective classroom management. However, many teachers find it is even more critical for students who are at risk for poor academics or for students with behavior problems.

Student characteristics

Student characteristics may also influence a classroom teacher’s decision to initiate a referral for special education services. Students’ inattention, misbehavior, and gender are the factors teachers have traditionally identified as reasons for making special education referrals. For example, many teachers have reported that male students who misbehave are more likely to be noticed and referred for special education.

More recently, teachers report using five major criteria for special education referral:

• student inattentiveness
• requiring constant assistance
• inability to apply information learned
• inability to complete tasks, and
• students’ demeanor, disposition, or attitude of not wanting to learn.

It’s clear that classroom teachers consider students’ academics and inattention as important factors when making referrals, but there are also social reasons such as peer relationships that some teachers target when considering referral for behavior reasons.

Conclusion

This week’s claim depends upon the specific situation, but the general statement should be regarded as fact. Research supports the claim that general education teachers can accurately refer students for special services. Certainly each classroom, teacher, and student provides unique differences where accurate referral of students for special education services might not occur. But the important message in this post is that even general education teachers, not certified in special education, can help the referral process of their struggling students.

Next week’s post will continue the discussion on the issue of referral for special education. I will provide some helpful suggestions and tips for teachers when it comes to referring students for special education services.

The claim

Students with disabilities do not benefit from the use of technology in the classroom.

The facts

Many teachers adhere to the common myth that students with disabilities cannot benefit from the use of technology in the classroom. In fact, the opposite is true: Students with disabilities can not only benefit from the use of technology, but they often thrive on it. Research shows that incorporating the use of technology in the classroom helps students with all kinds of disabilities.

One of the reasons offered for this common misconception is that students with disabilities don’t have the ability to use the technology themselves or to understand it. As a result, they cannot benefit from technology. However, this assumption is itself a myth: Research shows that most students — even students with disabilities — are typically far more technologically skilled than their teachers. Often, teachers simply underestimate their students’ ability to use the technology. When this happens, a critical opportunity for these students is lost simply because their teachers underestimate students’ abilities. It is important to note that not all students with disabilities will benefit from the use of technology: Students with more severe disabilities might lack the ability to benefit from particular technologies. But overall, the use of technology should not be dismissed so quickly.

Technology in the classroom has a variety of applications. It can be used to help students improve their writing skills, reading skills, and overall academic motivation. Students with disabilities can use technological tools to help improve their reading and writing skills just as easily as their typically developing peers. Here are some helpful ways to incorporate technology in students’ writing.

LEARN NC

LEARN NC has a terrific set of resources for teachers to explore on a wide variety of subjects. One of LEARN NC’s collections, “Best of the Web,” provides links to web resources that have been reviewed for quality and educational appropriateness. On the LEARN NC home page, click on “Best of the Web” in the left sidebar, and then click on the “technology” link listed alphabetically in the tag cloud. The search results consist of a massive amount of resources covering all types of material and subjects. You can browse keywords like biology, engineering, art, even North Carolina. This is a great resource for teachers linking technology and content in the classroom.

Word processing software

Technology as simple as a word processing program is often overlooked in discussions of educational technology, but word processing software can help students by providing immediate feedback on things like misspelled words and grammatically incorrect sentences. In addition, this technology can be used to provide ways for students to substitute alternative methods of writing.

VoiceThread

VoiceThread is a free software program that captures voices, photos, and links while sharing information and opinions on a particular topic. It offers a technological substitute for typical written papers. VoiceThread allows students the freedom to design their own projects and narrate accordingly.

Bubbl.us

Bubbl.us is a terrific technology that helps students organize their thoughts graphically and electronically. It can be used to help brainstorm ideas or even organize papers. It is easy to use and helps engage the students in the content of the assignment.

Prezi

Prezi is a great technology for presenting information to the class or even for students to use themselves. It is an alternative to the more-commonly-used PowerPoint presentations. I find it more engaging than the typical presentations as it creates a sense of adventure for presenting the material.

PBworks

PBworks is a hosting service that allows users to set up personal wikis. Wikis are simply collaborative web pages used to display and edit information. They also offer a very handy way for teachers to display lots of information in one space. You can set up a wiki for each teacher or even for each class in a school. This allows students to log on and access all of the available course information. Students can also interact with the teacher and with each other by posting messages or concerns.

Wordle

Wordle is a creative website that helps classes brainstorm or develop a graphic display of associated words in specific contexts. You create this graphic by typing or copying a specific paper, paragraph, or series of notes into Wordle. The website produces a sort of collage of the most common words in the highlighted text. It is a great resource for presentations or to get students started with assignments.

Conclusion

This week’s claim is almost certainly fiction. Although there are some circumstances where a student’s severe disability might negatively affect his or her ability to use technology in the classroom, most students with disabilities absolutely can and do benefit from technology. Incorporating technology in the classroom increases students’ motivation to learn and gives them ways of displaying their knowledge that is innovative and effective.

The claim

Students with learning and behavior disorders cannot benefit from evidence-based reading interventions.

The facts

In the previous posts, I focused on the connection between learning and behavior problems. I then provided some useful strategies that were found to be effective. This week’s post will focus specifically on reading interventions for students with learning and/or behavior problems. First, I will present some background information on the existence of reading problems for students with combined learning and behavior problems. Then, I will present evidence-based practices based on the findings of the National Reading Panel. These findings cover the five areas of reading identified by this panel: phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension.

Some researchers have found that most students referred for special education services experience reading difficulties. When these reading difficulties exist, students are often at risk for behavior problems. Achievement problems are often experienced by students with behavior problems, as they generally earn lower grades, have higher retention rates, have problems passing end-of-year tests, and experience higher dropout rates than students without behavior problems. Specific problems in reading achievement appear to negatively effect children with behavior problems. Sadly, when these academic and behavior problems persist, interventions become less effective, further resulting in school failure.

As we discussed in the post on comorbidity, many researchers suggest that reading deficits result in problem behaviors while others suggest that it is the other way around: Problem behaviors lead to deficits in reading. Regardless of your position, we can all agree that both reading and behavioral deficits interfere with student learning. For students with challenging behaviors, reducing problem behavior is certainly a priority. However, it is extremely important to not overlook academic instruction, specifically reading instruction. The good news is that research has shown that interventions targeting specific academic and reading skills may also reduce problem behaviors.

The National Reading Panel (NRP) was formed to review the body of literature on reading instruction and to make recommendations for evidence-based practices that promote reading achievement. After reviewing more than 100,000 studies for its 2000 report, the NRP identified five components of effective reading instruction: phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension. Additionally, they found that instruction that was systematic (skill instruction that is planned in a logical sequence with scheduled opportunities for practice and assessment to monitor skill acquisition) and explicit (expectations are clearly stated and modeled by the teacher) was most effective. As a result of their recommendations, these five areas of reading instruction were included in the No Child Left Behind Act, and have become a part of reading programs in school districts across the country.

The five areas of reading

Phonemic awareness

Phonemic awareness is the ability to attend to the individual sounds in spoken words. It is a good predictor of early reading ability and also an early predictor of future reading difficulty. Research has shown that teaching phonemic awareness to young children increases reading achievement and that some children, especially those with learning and behavior problems, require systematic, explicit instruction in phonemic awareness in order to make the connection between individual sounds and words. The following are some evidence-based practices that support phonemic awareness instruction. These activities focus on segmenting and blending sounds.

• Daily language-play activities such as nursery rhymes and chants: These activities teach children to attend to the features of sounds in words.
• Explicit instruction of sounds through segmenting and sound isolation can occur when presenting children with words that have the same beginning, middle, or ending sounds, and then into individual sounds. Small group instruction is best for teaching phonemic awareness because children can receive immediate feedback from the teacher and observe others performing the same tasks.

Phonics

Phonics instruction focuses on a child’s ability to understand the alphabetic principle, or letter-sound knowledge. A child who understands the alphabetic principle demonstrates an awareness of the relationship between a written letter or word and the sound(s) it represents. Researchers found that systematic instruction in phonics that occurred during beginning reading instruction lead to significant reading achievement. Evidence-based practices that support systematic phonics instruction include:

• Word work: Word work includes the use of manipulative letters to improve children’s understanding of the alphabetic principle. During a word work activity, children engage in encoding and decoding of words, manipulating the sounds to form new words and working with onsets and rimes in word families.
• Making words is a similar program by Patricia Cunningham. Enables students to manipulate six to eight letters to make a variety of words.
• Invented spelling involves allowing children to use their knowledge of letters and sounds to invent their own spellings of words. Teachers can incorporate word work into literacy centers and encourage the use of invented spelling in children’s creative writing.

Fluency

Fluency is defined as the ability to read with accuracy, speed, and prosody. The National Reading Panel found that fluency developed significantly when children were given the opportunity to practice with repeated readings. Other researchers have also found that when children are able to practice reading repetitively with feedback, gains in reading achievement occurred. The following are two examples of evidence-based practices that promote fluency:

• Partner reading: A more fluent reader is paired with a less fluent reader as they read text aloud. By modeling fluent reading, the more fluent reader is able to demonstrate accurate reading for the less fluent reader. The less fluent reader is then able to read the text aloud on his or her own, receiving immediate feedback from the more fluent reader until the student can read the text independently.
• Reader’s theatre: Text is read repeatedly in the form of a play that is rehearsed and performed for an audience. Fluency building occurs in the repeated readings of the scripts, and comprehension occurs when students learn to understand the characters’ actions and feelings. Classroom teachers can implement reader’s theatre by using adapted stories or parts of stories and typing them into script form. Students can practice reading the scripts in pairs, then act out the scripts in front of the class.

Vocabulary

Vocabulary instruction is an important component of the reading process. Without word knowledge, children could not learn from what they read. There are four types of vocabulary: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Vocabulary plays a vital role in word recognition as readers use words in their oral vocabulary to recognize words they read. Vocabulary is also important for comprehension because if children don’t understand the words they are reading, comprehension cannot occur. Research has shown that vocabulary is crucial to basic skills acquisition and in the development of content knowledge. Research has shown that despite the fact that vocabulary is often learned indirectly, it should be explicitly taught and drawn from authentic literacy experiences where students encounter words through listening and reading. Here are two evidence-based practices used to develop vocabulary:

• Semantic maps help students brainstorm details they know about a word, thereby accessing their background knowledge and helping them build understanding (Stahl, 1999). The teacher places a concept in the middle of a graphic organizer and students’ ideas are placed around the topic. This can be used in small or whole group instruction and in all content areas.
• Word studies encourage students to analyze words by breaking them into parts that children know. Prefixes, suffixes, and roots are broken down so that students can decipher words based on the parts they understand. This method can be used to teach strategies to students who are encountering difficult words in content areas such as social studies and science.

Comprehension

Comprehension is the goal of reading; without it, we couldn’t gain meaning from text. Phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, and vocabulary development all contribute to comprehension of text. Research has shown that good readers who comprehend what they read use a variety of strategies while they read, and know what strategies to use and when to use them without being prompted. Throughout history, in most classrooms, comprehension is most often tested rather then instructed. Within the past decade, however, teachers have become interested in evidence-based practices that aid their students in comprehension. Here are two of these practices:

• Creating questions: Students connect what they are reading to prior knowledge. This leads them to make predictions or identify the author’s perspective. Proficient readers who ask themselves questions as they read have better recall of information and improved accuracy in identification of main ideas.
• Story structure instruction: Students organize the structure of a story including characters, setting, plot, and main idea. This helps with a greater understanding of these elements as they occur. Story maps can be used to graphically represent the structures of stories and can help students organize stories elements while they read. Teachers can provide students with graphic organizers to complete while they read so that they can identify the story’s sequence, characters, plot structure, setting, and other details.

Conclusion

This week’s claim should be considered fiction. The five components of reading, as identified by the National Reading Panel, act as a blueprint for effective reading instruction, especially for students with learning and behavior problems. Teachers who engage in the instruction of these components understand how each component builds on the other, and that explicit instruction in each area is necessary for students to become proficient readers. Obtaining an in-depth knowledge of these components helps teachers plan effective instruction for readers of diverse levels and abilities.

The claim

Positive Behavior Supports (PBS) are effective ways to help students with learning and behavior problems succeed.

The facts

In the previous post, I discussed the relationship between learning and behavior problems and the negative effects these problems have on children in school and in life. With recent trends in assessment, schools and teachers are held accountable for the academic and social success of their students, regardless of their disability. Many schools have found they lack the resources to meet the needs of all students in the inclusive classroom setting.

Still, schools have to demonstrate they are meeting the academic and social needs of their students. They also have to document the ways in which they are implementing these practices effectively and efficiently. According to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act 2004 (IDEA), the practices that are being used to work with students with academic and behavioral challenges must focus on “scientifically, research-based interventions.” As an alternative, schools have begun to implement the use of Positive Behavior Supports (PBS), both at the school-wide level and at the classroom level.

PBS has been proven to be an effective model that addresses both learning and behavioral challenges in the classroom. The PBS model takes into account that many students often have academic and/or behavioral needs that can be met along a continuum of academic and behavior supports. In this week’s post, I will present the most effective, research-based strategies within the PBS model that are effective at helping teachers work with students who demonstrate learning and behavioral challenges within the general education inclusive classroom.

1. Establish a safe learning environment. Problems with academics and behavioral challenges often occur in environments where students do not feel they can express themselves without fear of being ridiculed. Classrooms should be places where students can share their feelings and knowledge freely. As a result, teachers who establish structured, supportive environments where learning and emotional/behavioral issues can be discussed openly tend to have students who experience higher rates of academic and social success.
2. Use data to assess students’ instructional and behavioral needs. Maintaining records in the classroom occurs naturally when teachers collect students’ work and conduct curriculum-based assessments on a regular basis. These academic records can provide teachers with insights into the specific academic problems a student may be having. Additionally, simple observations of a student’s inappropriate behaviors can also be used to identify the problems he or she may be having. They also provide some insights into why these problems are occurring.
3. Establish clear behavioral and learning expectations. When students know what is expected of them both academically and behaviorally, they are more likely to experience success. Providing clear directions on academic tasks can improve performance on daily classroom tasks and limit common misbehaviors. Similarly, making behavioral expectations clear through the use of posted class rules, established routines, and consistent consequences for misbehavior provide students support for successful behavior.
4. Focus on effective instruction at the appropriate level. Students who struggle academically often misbehave to avoid academic tasks that are too difficult. They learn that they can avoid completing challenging tasks if they act out and are removed from class. This cycle of academic difficulty and behavior problems was presented in last week’s post. Students who are presented with work that is either too hard or is not accompanied by appropriate instructional supports can easily get lost and fall victim to this cycle of behavior. Conversely, students who are presented with work that is too easy may become bored, resulting in challenging behaviors. Knowing students’ instructional levels is key to providing effective classroom instruction. This information can be found through initial assessment and through constant monitoring of student progress.
5. Use continuous progress monitoring to assess students and yourself. Monitoring student progress is key to providing successful academic and behavioral supports in the classroom. One example of progress monitoring that teachers do every day is taking running records of students’ reading fluency. These measures can provide the teacher with detailed information on students’ reading levels, as well as the progress students are making after reading instruction. Behaviorally, teachers can collect data using daily point sheets or behavior logs to determine when and where problem behaviors are occurring and to develop ideas about the function of students’ behaviors. Regardless of the method, teachers who continuously monitor students’ academic and behavioral progress are better able to make informed decisions about the kinds of interventions that can be successful for students.
6. Teachers should continuously monitor and reflect on their own behavior and instruction. It has been proven that progress monitoring is beneficial for students; however, effective teachers do not stop there. Teachers who monitor their own behaviors and instructional practices can lead to student growth academically and socially. Evaluating interactions with students, as well as the ways in which misbehaviors are addressed, can help teachers determine if they are in fact reinforcing inappropriate behaviors or missing some important instructional opportunities for students. Additionally, reflecting on their own instructional practices can often help teachers determine if they are relying too heavily on one instructional method over another (whole class, group, or one-on-one instruction). They can also see if they are setting an appropriate pace of instruction for the class, or providing tasks that are too easy or difficult for specific students. Being aware of one’s own instructional or classroom management style can help reduce or eliminate common classroom academic and behavior problems.
7. Help students become aware of their own behavior and academic problems. When teachers help students become aware of their own academic and behavioral challenges, students increase their ability to learn to monitor their success effectively. It is important for students to understand their own behavioral deficits and to use problem-solving strategies that help them learn to cope with their behaviors. Academically, students who are aware of the challenges they have with learning are better able to advocate for the supports they need to learn, as well as to be successful across learning environments. Awareness of these challenges often leads to better understanding of their own strengths and weaknesses. This leads to opportunities to increase self-monitoring and to better generalize the skills learned within the classroom to outside areas such as home and community.

Conclusion

This week’s claim is fact. The strategies discussed above include the most powerful interventions used in classrooms that have adopted a PBS approach to learning and behavior problems. These strategies have been identified by leaders in the field of Positive Behavior Supports such as Drs. Terry Scott, George Sugai, and Robert Horner through the Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports Network. The PBIS website offers additional information on the many ways in which PBS models can be implemented within your classroom or school.

The claim

Students can suffer simultaneously from learning and behavior problems.

The facts

Two of the most common problems students have in the classroom relate to learning and behavior. Academic research is producing a growing body of knowledge that looks at students experiencing both problems at the same time (often referred to as comorbidity). This issue can be looked at in two different ways.

The first is to adopt the view that students diagnosed with learning difficulties also have behavior difficulties. Many research studies adopting this view have shown that some students diagnosed with learning disabilities also tend to have some behavior difficulties.

The other way to view the issue is through the perspective that students diagnosed with behavior disorders also have learning difficulties. Research studies adopting this view have shown that most students with behavior problems also suffer from learning disabilities.

Although these views seem similar, the distinction between them is important and should be considered when evaluating this week’s claim.

What, exactly, are behavior problems?

Because this is my first post addressing behavior, I’ll explain what I mean by behavior problems. This definition is adapted from the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA):

• Behavior problems are categorized as Serious Emotional Disturbances (SED).
• A condition exhibiting such characteristics over periods of time and severity:
  • Behavior that negatively affects educational performance
  • Inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors
  • Inability to start or keep social relationships with peers and teachers
  • Inappropriate behaviors or feelings in normal social situations
  • Common mood of unhappiness or depression
  • Development of fears associated with personal or school problems

These types of behaviors are of serious concern for parents and teachers. Research indicates that students who exhibit these challenging behaviors typically have higher rates of negative interactions with school personnel. As a result of these negative interactions, students unfortunately establish negative reputations as being troublemakers. These students tend to be punished more often and more severely causing their behaviors to become more extreme. Students with these kinds of behavior problems also typically spend less time academically engaged with their teachers. This lack of positive experience in the academic setting has been shown to be extremely detrimental to their academic development.

Research into these issues has identified what can be seen as a cycle of problem behavior and negative academic experiences. Provided below is a visual example of this cycle, called the Academic-Behavior Connection, created by Scott, Nelson, & Liaupsin (2001).

Cycle of problem behaviors and negative academic performance

This graphic illustrates the ongoing cycle of negative experiences between behavior problems and learning difficulties. Challenging behaviors represents the wide variety of behavior issues students have in the classroom. These include issues such as inappropriate speech, anger management, talking out of turn, inability to sit still, etc. Removal from class represents one of the typical repercussions from these types of challenging behaviors. In inclusion classrooms, one of the more common punishments for negative behavior is to take the student out of the class in order to continue teaching the rest of the students. As a result of being removed from class, research has shown these students fall behind academically. When the student is not in the classroom, they are not receiving the information and instruction necessary to keep up with the curriculum and academic expectations.

When students fall behind academically, more and more of the typical classroom assignments students encounter seem to be difficult work. Although a given assignment might not be more difficult than the regular assignments, the students’ lack of preparation results in increased frustration. And as described previously, students faced with work they feel they cannot complete tend to exhibit more challenging behaviors. Therefore, a student who falls into this cycle engages in a series of academic and behavior problems that may continue throughout his or her entire academic career.

Conclusion

This week’s claim is fact. Research has shown that learning problems and behavior problems often coexist. This issue has serious implications for classroom teachers, who need to be aware that students with one of these diagnoses are typically more susceptible to the other.

The claim

Males are more likely than females to be referred for special education services.

The facts

This week’s post is a little more straightforward and less controversial than those from the previous weeks. The claim that males are more likely than females to be referred for special education services is relatively clear in the educational literature. Although the methods used to identify students for special education services vary from study to study, the overwhelming consensus indicates that males are more often identified as having learning or behavioral disorders. The following visual representation of some special education statistics provides a useful way to understand this phenomenon:

As you can see from the table, males constitute a much higher percentage of the population for each category of disability except for the deaf/blindness category. According to the research in this area, gender ratios vary in severity ranging from a 2:1 male-to-female ratio all the way to an astounding 15:1 male-to-female ratio. Granted, the 15:1 ratio seems to be an extreme case according to the majority of the reports, but the consensus of the literature is quite clear that males are typically more often identified for special education services.

What is the cause of this phenomenon?

This is one of the questions for which researchers in the field of special education struggle to find an answer. Studies in this area propose a wide variety of theories as to why the ratios are so lopsided. Most theories use either an environmental or biological basis as to what causes the differences between males and females. Some researchers believe that males are simply more vulnerable to the environmental factors that influence development, causing males to be negatively affected. However, there is little evidence supporting this environmental argument.

Other theories examine biological influences as the cause for this high rate of special education services for males. Some researchers believe that because boys mature more slowly than girls, both physically and mentally, that they are negatively affected in their educational development. Other researchers argue that chromosomal abnormalities that are more prevalent in boys lead to their higher rate of disabilities. And some researchers even suspect an issue in the development of boys’ brains that results in lack of plasticity, or ability for the brain to adapt. Each of these theories and more have been presented in the literature of educational research, however, each theory lacks validation from multiple studies. So, because there is no conclusive evidence supporting any of these theories, they should remain just that: theories.

Learning disabilities and emotional disturbances

As the table illustrates, there is a significant difference between males and females in the top two categories: learning disabilities and emotional disturbances. Although these categories are different and reported separately, there is support for the claim that these two categories are linked together.

Research has found that the male-to-female ratio of emotional-behavioral disorders ranges from 3:1 to 8:1. Studies investigating this phenomenon have produced extremely helpful results. One of the issues related to this topic is how a school system defines behavioral problems. The overwhelming majority describes behavior problems as actions that are physically disruptive to the classroom, fellow students, or teachers. According to research, males are more prone to the types of behaviors the school view as being categorized as behavior issues. In other words, boys are more likely to outwardly rebel against authority than girls are.

As boys develop, there is a heavier emphasis on achieving status within the classroom, being dominant and more competitive. Girls, on the other hand, are more likely to express a greater desire to be liked and therefore tend to be more cooperative and respect authority. Also, girls with behavioral issues tend to act depressed or sad, keeping their emotions inside, while boys express their emotions much more outwardly, showing visible rage, frustration, or anger. These characteristics provide support for the claim that boys are more likely to be referred for having behavioral issues.

Just as boys tend to express negative behaviors more outwardly, the same goes for their inability to keep their attention focused. Boys are more likely than girls to be visibly off task when it comes to school, which leads to more boys being referred for special education services than girls. According to research, when a student is diagnosed with an attention deficit of some kind, he or she is often identified as having learning disabilities as well. As the chart above shows, males are much more likely than girls to be diagnosed with learning disabilities, and therefore this claim by researchers should be taken seriously.

Conclusion

Studies in this area lead to the overwhelming conclusion that this week’s claim is fact. Although there is some research in the literature that argues against the claim that males are more often referred for special education services, the majority of research supports this claim. I have yet to come across a study where there are more females represented in the sample than males, although I’m sure it exists somewhere. The underlying cause for this phenomenon has yet to be determined but researchers will continue their search until the question is finally answered.

The claim

Students living in poverty are more likely to be identified as candidates for special education services.

The facts

The link between poverty and special education is related to last week’s topic, the over-representation of minorities in special education. As I wrote in that blog post, many researchers have found that minorities are over-represented in special education classes. Most of those researchers believe that poverty is a major factor in minority students’ academic troubles. Coping with a disability is stressful for all children and families, but it is even more stressful when the family is living in poverty. Research shows a connection between poverty and disability rate, as children and adults in poverty are more likely to have higher rates of disabilities, and people with disabilities are more likely to live in poverty.

Based on his work at the National Center for Children in Poverty, Lawrence Aber reported that nearly 40% of children living in the United States often live a paycheck away from the poverty line. Although Aber found that poverty affects children from all races and ethnicities, the poverty rate among African Americans and Hispanics is three times as high as the poverty rate among whites. Persons living in urban and rural areas are more likely to live in poverty, but rates in suburban communities are rising as well. Aber also points out that even if you include all demographic data (race, ethnicity, gender, community classification) the U.S. would still have the highest poverty rate of any industrialized nation in the world.

Research shows that disability rates are rising among children living in poverty, while rates for children above the poverty line have remained steady. Many factors shape a child’s learning and development and can be categorized into social and biological factors. According to the research, living in poverty increases the exposure to these risk factors that compromise human development and often increase the need for special education services.

Biological factors are factors that are associated with the nature of human beings and their biological makeup. Some of the biological factors that are cause for concern in children living in poverty include lead and other toxin exposure, prenatal exposure to alcohol/drugs, and malnourishment. Most research has focused more on the more factors that can influence child development, especially for children living in poverty. For example, most children who live below the poverty line experience factors such as parental stress and poor child care settings early on in life. Limited access to books, poor quality childcare, and less interaction time between children and their primary caregivers are also contributors. These factors have a tremendous impact on children’s school readiness and achievement.

According to the National Research Council, the most influential factor of successful child development is the relationships developed between the child and their primary caregiver. These relationships are often — though not always — strained when the family is living in poverty. Research shows that families living in poverty tend to engage in less verbal discussion, which can limit a child’s vocabulary development. The amount of literacy tasks or exposure to books also tends be lower in these situations. Additionally, disciplinary principles and influential parenting approaches also tend to be lower among families living in poverty. According to studies, poor students are typically more likely to drop out of school or be suspended or expelled from school. School districts with high rates of suspensions and expulsions tend to have higher special education referral rates.

Conclusion

According to the available research, this claim can be considered to be fact: Families living in poverty are more often exposed to the biological and social risk factors that influence special education services. This correlation suggests a need for more attention from our educational system and for additional research in this field. Until it is recognized that poverty is playing a big role in the underachievement of America’s youth, improvements will not be made.

Surprisingly, the National Center for Children in Poverty found that the majority of people they surveyed did not believe that poverty was the major issue facing America’s children today. It is unacceptable for the educational system not to serve these children as well as it serves the middle or upper class. Children living in poverty have the same capacity to learn as their better-off peers; the difference is in their access to the proper care and resources. More attention to providing these resources can reduce the alarming rate of special education services reported for children living in poverty.

In our last blog post, we addressed issues surrounding the over-representation of minorities in special education classrooms. In our continuation of this discussion, we will consider some of the root causes for this over-representation, discuss possible preventative measures, and analyze some statistics behind referral of students into special education classrooms. By providing a basic understanding of factors that contribute to disabilities, as well as the ways in which schools can proactively eliminate the need for special ed services for some students, we can shed some light on the demographic data that exists across disability categories.

Root causes

Research into the causes for various disabilities points to four major factors: biological factors, ecological factors, educational opportunities, and poverty. Let’s look at them one by one:

Biological factors

Many disabilities can be linked to biological factors. Chromosomal abnormalities that arise during the development of an egg or sperm cell can result in Down syndrome, fragile X syndrome, and other physical disabilities. Heredity can play a role in other disabilities, such as learning disabilities.

Ecological factors

Exposure to hazardous waste or other environmental toxins pose another threat that can result in the presentation of some disabilities. For example, some intellectual and learning disabilities have been linked to exposure to lead found in pipes and paint.

Educational opportunities

Disparity between students can sometimes be explained by a difference in educational opportunities. Research conducted by Russell Skiba in 2008 linked poor educational achievement of minorities to inadequate classroom instruction, lack of access to highly qualified teachers, and fewer resources.

Poverty

Not surprisingly, the one factor that links all three of the aforementioned factors together is poverty. Educational demographer Harold Hodgkinson cites poverty as the most handicapping condition affecting America’s youth, regardless of race or ethnicity. In 2002, the US Department of Education found that twice as many African American and Hispanic children as white children came from families living below the poverty line. Although there is no real way to link poverty to academic difficulties in children, researchers such as Harry and Klingner and Russell Skiba found that teachers’ perceptions of children who live in poverty is strongly related to lower academic expectations.

Prevention

Research points to a variety of factors that are effective at preventing the prevalence of disabilities in children. These include greater access to health care, improved home environments, and access to quality pre-school programs.

The benefits of pre-school experiences

The last of these factors, a focus on early intervention, is a critical consideration, and the one over which educators have the most control. Many students with disabilities have had limited access to quality educational experiences before first grade, and many have not participated in any kind of school experience before entering kindergarten. Without these pre-school experiences, students enter school with inadequate readiness skills, background experiences, and social experiences, all of which can lead to academic and behavioral difficulties. The National Reading Panel has also stressed the importance of pre-school experiences on children’s reading development. This lack of experience often leads to a higher prevalence of learning difficulties, especially reading disabilities such as dyslexia.

The role of expectations

Students who experience learning and behavior problems often have problems with academic engagement, which results in increases in school dropout. African American and Hispanic students who struggle in school are twice as more likely to drop out of school than white students. The National Center of Educational Statistics released a report in 2007 that revealed some valuable insights into why these students drop out of school. First, schools attended by low-income minorities are often inadequate and provide a less engaging environment in which to learn. Secondly, teachers’ expectations of these students are often lower than for their peers. When students sense this disparity, they often disconnect themselves from the schooling experience. To counter these effects, schools should work to provide higher expectations of academic achievement, provide more intensive instruction, and make instruction more engaging and culturally relevant for them.

A look at the statistics

Now that we have looked at some of the contributing factors leading to the prevalence of certain disability categories, it may be helpful to understand some of the relevant statistics. The National Center for Educational Statistics reports that of the 48.6 million students enrolled in public schools during 2005, a little more than half are white, about 20% are Hispanic or Latino, and 17% are African American.

These types of statistical data are available for North Carolina as well. Each year, the North Carolina Department of Public Instruction (NCDPI) analyzes the risk level of certain races for over-representation based on disability category. Using this information, NCDPI creates a document called the Disporportionality Report. The report examines the representation of a particular racial/ethnic group of children receiving special education services based on over- or under-representation in the general school population. It also examines the status of a particular racial/ethnic group of children being identified in specific disability categories.

According to NCDPI, students in a particular group who are represented at a higher percentage than other students in racial/ethnic groups when compared to their representation in the general school population are of major concern. Based on North Carolina’s criteria for significant over-representation, there are two disability categories where students of a particular racial/ethnic group are of major concern. Those disability categories are Educable Mental Disabilities (EMD) and Behavioral-Emotional Disabilities (BED).

The table provided below presents data calculated for the 2005-2006 school year for North Carolina Public Schools. Based on the data collected from school districts across North Carolina, we have selected some surrounding school districts that represent urban, suburban, and rural school settings. The number of students receiving special education services across all disability categories is presented in this table. As you can see, in primarily urban settings, the number of African American students receiving special education services far outnumbers the number of white and Hispanic students receiving those services. However, in primarily rural settings, white students outnumber both African American and Hispanic students in receiving special education services. Could it be that percentages of students receiving special education services is directly related to demographic representation within particular communities?

Conclusion

The representation of minorities in special education populations is an issue that sparks a great deal of debate in educational communities. Many researchers argue that minorities are over-represented in special education while many other researchers argue the opposite. The answer to this issue is still unclear, even in light of the available statistics. While the data for some local counties suggests an over-representation of minorities in special ed, the data for other counties refutes the idea.

This argument is also made more complex when the percentages of different types of disabilities are evaluated. Different types of disabilities produce different percentages that can either support or refute the claim of minority over-representation. It is clear that additional analysis is needed in order to find growing trends in referral rates in the special education population. As a result, it is important for educators and practitioners to consider the wide array of available information when forming an opinion on this issue.

The claim

Certain ethnic groups are disproportionally represented in special education classrooms.

The facts

One of the hottest topics in education today is the ever-changing demographics of the American classroom — the result of immigration. A look at the national data often sparks debate about what the referral rate “should be” for students recommended for special education classrooms, particularly in terms of race and ethnicity. When discussing minority representation (or over-representation) in special education classrooms, it is important to take some important details into consideration.

First, the declaration of ethnic categories is difficult, considering there are only five that are used to describe dimensions of race and ethnicity: African American, American Indian, Asian/Pacific Islander, Hispanic/Latino, and Caucasian. Many individuals do not fit into one category or another, so identification is often difficult. Another consideration is more complicated: School districts are often considered rural, urban, or suburban. There are many studies that have demonstrated that the more urban the school district, the fewer minority students are placed in special education classrooms. Still other studies have found that school districts with high minority populations, regardless of their geographic or economic status, place fewer students in special education classrooms.

Finally, socio-economic status has become one of the more reliable predictors of referral — or risk for referral — for special education services. Students who come from low-income families often suffer from nutritional deficiencies and lack of school readiness when compared with their economically advantaged counterparts. Poverty has become the one factor that affects all races and ethnicities within the United States.

To further complicate matters, there are two ways in which over-representation of minority students are reported. One method is to use a composition index in which a specific group’s percentage in special education classrooms is compared to its percentage within the general school population. For example: suppose there are 20 students in a special education classroom: 4 are Hispanic (20% of the class), 8 are African American (AA) (40%) , and 9 are white (45%). Within the whole school population, there are 25 Hispanic kids, 75 AA, and 100 white. If you look at the percentage of the whole school population, let’s see which group is over-represented within the special education class. 5 out of 25 Hispanic kids from the entire school population makes 16%, which is less than the 20% within the special ed classroom, so this is not over-representation. 8 out of 75 AA students represents about 11% of the total population of AA students in the school, so that indicates a case of over-representation of AA students within the special ed classroom. With 9 out of 100, or 9% of the white student population being in special education, but representing 45% of the special education class, it would indicate that white students are also over-represented within this class.

The second method of determining over-representation of minorities in special education classrooms is to calculate a group’s representation compared to that of other groups. This method, sometimes referred to as the risk index, uses percentages of students by race or ethnicity across disability categories to determine the likelihood of a student’s being referred for special education services, given the student’s race or ethnicity.

So why are problems with over-representation of minorities such a concern? Many claim that some students from specific ethnic groups are placed in special education classrooms based purely on the color of their skin and not because they actually demonstrate characteristics of a disability. There are several repercussions if this occurs.

First, the student will have been wrongly removed from access to the general education curriculum, which can lead to reduced educational opportunities and services. Second, a student incorrectly identified with a disability may receive inappropriate and unnecessary behavioral or instructional services, which could be provided to a student who could better benefit from the services offered in a special education classroom. Third, being placed in a special education classroom often comes with a social stigma that can greatly affect a student’s self esteem and motivation. Finally, it is often thought that special education services are pushed even when parents do not want the services provided. Many parents from diverse backgrounds do not seek out such interference from schools and instead have services imposed on them with very little input.

Conclusion

This week’s topic is certainly debatable and has no easy answer. To address this issue, more specific information should be presented and discussed. Issues concerning cause, prevalence, and prevention should be presented before a final conclusion can be made. In next week’s blog, we will present national statistics on the representation of different minority groups across several disability categories using the two indices described above. We will also discuss ways in which issues of over-representation can be prevented.

The Claim

Social skills are an important element of classroom management and should be taught in the same manner as academic skills.

The Facts

Social skills development is an important aspect of schooling and plays a large role in academic achievement, peer interactions, and the ability to behave appropriately in school. Researchers such as Drs. Terry Scott and James Kauffman have described in detail the link between academics and behavior within the classroom setting. Students are often expected to come to school with the skills necessary to get along and interact with peers, follow directions from adults, and behave appropriately during instructional activities. This, however, is not often the case. As a result, social skills instruction tends to become a part of the “hidden curriculum” in that it is not taught explicitly to students within the classroom context.

Drs. Melissa Miller and Nicole Fenty have explored the development of social skills instruction, and found that like the development of any other instruction, social skills instruction consists of planning, instructional delivery, and assessment. Planning for social skills instruction involves planning for both logistics and content. Logistical concerns include when and where training will take place, as well as who will be involved and the length of training. Planning for instructional content involves consideration of the nature of the problem and the corresponding content of instruction. Instructional planning must consider what skills will be taught, the range of variation in those skills, selection and sequencing of examples and non-examples, and practice in the natural environment. Delivery of instruction begins with the introduction of a new skill to students and continues with modeling and the facilitation of practice with feedback. In the beginning behavior is largely controlled by teacher praise but, over time, praise is faded and behaviors are more and more reinforced solely by naturally occurring events. For this to be effective, it is crucial that feedback during instruction remains consistent and constructive by acknowledging success and providing correction and re-teaching in the face of errors. Assessment is the mechanism by which we determine whether our efforts have been successful and thus, teachers must assess instruction in a formative manner to continually evaluate student mastery. At the acquisition level, teachers are interested in whether students understand and can consistently demonstrate the appropriate skill. Once mastered, teacher attention turns to assessment of student behavior over time (maintenance) and in varying contexts (generalization). As a general rule of thumb, the more students are evaluated in various contexts and conditions, and then provided with immediate and constructive feedback, the more likely students are to demonstrate maintenance and generalization of skills.

Classifying social skills deficits into acquisition or performance categories also helps to design instruction based on student need. An acquisition deficit is when the student lacks the skill knowledge and ability, whereas a performance deficit is when the student has the skills but elects not use them. In the case of skill deficits, instruction will involve teaching students how to act in and react to social situations. For students who possess but choose not to perform skills, instruction will focus more on when (antecedent contexts) and why (consequences) to use skills rather than how. In either case, it is clear that these students need explicit instruction that provides alternatives to antisocial behaviors and facilitates an increase in the amount of positive social interaction they experience with their teachers and peers.

The model-lead-test method can be used to teach social skills. This type of successful social skills instruction includes an eight-step lesson format that includes modeling, role playing, and opportunities to practice or test for skill acquisition. Here are the eight steps:

• Step 1: Name or identify the skill that will be taught. When introducing the skill, it is important to discuss the rationale for the skill so students see the relevance of learning the skill (Gresham, 1998). Students can brainstorm examples for why the skill is important.
• Step 2: Define the skill by stating the rule for the skill. By stating the rule for using the skill, students learn when and in what situations to use the skill.
• Step 3: Break the skill components down into step-by-step procedures for completing the skill. Skill components can be taught in isolation, with one presented per day so that all students have the opportunity to learn each component for mastery. For social skills that have components that are already in the students’ repertoire, those components can be reviewed and new components added.
• Step 4: Define the skill component to be taught for each day’s lesson. This occurs when breaking skill components down to teach one per day and is particularly important for skills that have complex components.
• Step 5: Demonstrate use of the skill and model within the natural context of the skill. The teacher arranges a role play with another student or adult and assigns roles to students so that each child is responsible for monitoring a specific skill component.
• Step 6: Facilitate appropriate skill use by the student through effective rehearsal with assistance. Role playing is commonly used during this phase, giving the child the opportunity to practice the skill without fear of social rejection or failure. At this point, it is critical for students to receive positive feedback when they perform the skill correctly. Students should practice only correct examples of the targeted social skill, and should be corrected immediately if they demonstrate inappropriate use of the skill.
• Step 7: Provide the opportunity for students to practice the skill without prompts or cues during a role-play situation that they have not yet encountered. During this phase, students can also be exposed to variations of the skill to test their ability to state the critical rule and apply it in a variety of situations. The testing phase allows the teacher to check student understanding of the critical rule for the skill and use of skill components without teacher assistance.
• Step 8: Assign homework. Give students the opportunity to practice the skill in another setting, which ensures that they are able to generalize the skills learned. Additionally, by assigning homework, the teacher involves parents and siblings in the home environment, adding to the list of individuals who can provide support and feedback for skill use in other situations and settings.

Conclusion

The claim stated in this week’s blog is fact. The goal of social skills instruction is to promote social success in children who demonstrate skill deficits. When a social skill is learned through observation, using a method that includes modeling, students have the opportunity to learn how to demonstrate the skill to obtain positive social outcomes for displaying social competence. Teacher support for student development of social skills is a vital component of success in the classroom and should be a priority for all classroom settings.